Ideas as Power: Language, Thought, and Memory in Maoist and Post-Maoist China

Organizer: Jing Li, Duquesne University

Chair & Discussant: Lijun Yuan, Texas State University - San Marcos

New ideas, vocabularies, and styles of expression accompanied radical shifts in sociopolitical philosophies with the rise of People's Republic of China, reaching an apex during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976).  From the disciplines of linguistics, critical theory, history, and philosophy, we examine the effects of ideology in policy, language, style, and memory of Maoist and Post-Maoist China.  While Mao and the Chinese state in general espoused continuous revolution and radical rhetoric, such practices were usually, if not often effectively, either harnessed or subdued for the pragmatic requirements of advancing a new government and, essentially, one of the world's most populous and diverse modern nation states.  Fundamentally, each paper examines in different ways how the "shape of consciousness" (conceptually in Chinese, "yi shi xing tai," which translates into English simply as "ideology") was shaped and reshaped through language, literary, and always, political praxis.  Furthermore, we are keenly aware that our work is historical in nature, a point that finds emphasis with a review of how the Maoist experiences and rhetoric have become transformed/remembered in the new cultural milieu of contemporary China.

Yi shi xing tai: How an anti-Marxist concept became state policy with the rise of the PRC
Josef Gregory Mahoney, Grand Valley State University

This paper illustrates how the term yi shi xing tai became part of the Chinese Communist lexicon and praxis despite Karl Marx's well-documented, negative comments on the very concept of ideology.  I begin by tracing the concept etymologically from kanji via influences from Chinese scholars returning from Japan, show how the word was re-conceptualized to rid itself of certain non-Marxist connotations (e.g., one of the kanji characters traced to the Buddhist concept of consciousness), and then provide examples from major texts by Mao and others who used the word frequently and positively as they shaped policies for the CCP and PRC.  I conclude by briefly illustrating how ideology, its usage and meaning, has changed subtly since the end of the Cultural Revolution, especially under Deng Xiaoping and Jiang Zemin.

The Pen and the Gun: Mao in the Power Struggle of the Great Cultural Revolution, 1966-1976
Jing Li, Duquesne University

Given China's long Confucian and imperial past, Chinese politics has always been largely determined both by the exercise of ideological influence and by the use of coercive force. A steady grip on these two kinds of power is particularly important in times of upheavals and leadership succession.

During the Great Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976 Chairman Mao Zedong was confronted with two conflicting demands on him. On the one hand, as a fervent Communist idealist, Mao actively promoted the so-called "ever-lasting revolution" and in the process promoted a whole corps of Communist ideologues and theorists, who, with their pens, kept Mao's revolution alive. On the other hand, the chaos prevalent during the Great Cultural Revolution had the potential of throwing all top leaders out of office, even Mao himself, especially if some disgruntled generals in the People's Liberation Army lost patience with the so-called revolution, from which they suffered in no small measure.

In his handling of this complex situation, Mao revealed himself as both an idealist radical and pragmatic traditionalist, who promoted and protected his ideologues and theorists and at the same time engaged in old-fashioned deals-making with his generals. Some new historical materials from the said period have surfaced in recent years - memoirs, etc. - which have made new studies possible, which in turn will help us to understand better the intricate and interesting relationships between Marxism and Confucianism, between culture and power, and between the pen and the gun in China.

Maoist Style and New Chinese Culture
Jin Wu, Independent Scholar, Canada

Mao wenti (Maoist style) as a political-cultural concept was proposed by Li Tuo in the late 1980s. It is significant in exploring Maoism and the role it has played in the history of modern China at the deeper level. However, Li Tuo did not describe what aesthetic features the style has. This oversight not only causes some misunderstanding, i.e., many people take Mao wenti as the stereotyped and empty official "big words," it also overlooks Mao wenti’s enduring constructive function of forging a new culture. What this paper argues is that Maoism-based modern Chinese culture has created a distinctive cultural environment, in which "insiders" who were nurtured there can share the same aesthetic taste, even though they assume different political and ideological stands. Accordingly, this paper investigates what Mao wenti is in terms of a writing style and how it has played the role in forging contemporary Chinese culture. It is a common impression, especially among Taiwanese critics, that traditional Chinese culture has been preserved in Taiwan because Maoist revolution was so thoroughly anti-traditional. This paper argues, however, that Mao wenti and modern Chinese culture in the mainland were not totally destructive. Furthermore, while Mao wenti as a radical writing style, has been challenged, subverted, and removed at different levels since the end of the Cultural Revolution, is survives because it has developed into a new tradition.

Old Photos and the Popular Memory of the Cultural Revolution
Li Zeng, Northwestern University

As the Great Cultural Revolution remains a politically sensitive topic in China, popular memory becomes an area in which significant inquiring for truth takes place. Old Photos (Lao Zhaopian), a magazine that publishes old photographs and accompanying narratives, has gained popularity since its first appearance in 1996. The uniqueness of this magazine is that the photos and writings are from average people. Although it is not intended as a magazine for reflecting on the Cultural Revolution, many works published in the magazine are about their authors’ experience during that period. This paper will explore this unique cultural phenomenon, and address the following questions: Why did this kind of magazine become popular in the late 1990s? What do the photos suggest about history? How do average people write about or remember that part of history? What is the relation between the historical event and people’s memory?

This paper is not concerned with the truth of the Cultural Revolution, but rather the importance of people’s voice of telling their personal history, which is entangled with the public and official history. It challenges the stereotypical discourses on the Cultural Revolution, in which Chinese people are reduced to faceless crowd who were fooled or manipulated by political forces. The private photos and accompanying narratives demonstrate people’s strong desire to affirm their individuality and express their personal feelings, which for them are an important part of the Cultural Revolution.