Organizer: Diane D'Souza, Henry Martyn Institute of Islamic Studies, Hyderabad
Chair: Andreas D'Souza, Henry Martyn Institute of Islamic Studies, Hyderabad
Discussant: Richard M. Eaton, University of Arizona
Ritual, symbol and song have long played a powerful role in shaping religious meaning for Muslims of the Indian sub-continent. This panel focuses on popular devotion and examines transformative and empowering aspects of songs, rituals and objects from a number of conceptual viewpoints: historical, literary, performative and phenomenological. In the context of religious events, the process of transformation can be centered on a believer uplifted or transported by ritual or encounter, or on a space, object or word which is subtly or wholly re-created or sacralized. Transformation thus becomes the key to new power.
The four papers here presented are based on studies of Sunni, Khoja, Shîcî, and Hindu communities, and include the perspectives, practices and beliefs of both men and women. The panel thus contributes to a steadily expanding literature on popular Muslim practice (e.g. Antoun, 1989; Bowen, 1993; Abu-Lughod 1993, Loeffler, 1988; Freidl, 1980) and points to areas of overlap and difference between various communities and groups in the subcontinent. It also highlights and expands our understanding of the presence and devotional activity of Muslim women, an area often neglected in studies of normative Islam.
Propagating the Message: Folk Songs and the Spread of Islam in South Asia
Ali S. Asani, Harvard University
This paper highlights the role of the popular folk song tradition as a vehicle for transmitting Islamic religious ideas in medieval India. By focusing on a few representative examples, such as the songs composed by certain Sufi groups and the ginans or hymns of the Ismaili community, the paper illustrates the manner in which some Muslims "Islamized" indigenous South Asian folk genres while simultaneously "indigenizing" Islamic concepts to these genres. The paper contends that through the twin processes of "islamization" and "indigenization," folk songs made a significant contribution to transforming the religious identity of populations in several regions of the subcontinent.
Immersed in Remembrance and Song: The Sama c of
a South Indian Mursid
Joyce B. Flueckiger, Emory University
On the twenty-sixth of the Muslim lunar month, the courtyard of Shaykh Husayn Quadri is transformed from the open-air "waiting room" of his wife's religious healing practice into a magnetic center of spiritual power drawing together the disciples of the aging shaykh. The occasion is the sama c , a ritual of devotional song and remembrance (qawwâ1î) that climaxes at particularly intense moments of song when the shaykh and certain of his male disciples enter a state of trance (wajd). This performative analysis of the sama c is framed by the theoretical assumption that performance not only reflects but also creates. I ask what are the social and spiritual realities reflected, created and negotiated in the sama c through the recitation of the salâm, the spatial seating arrangement (including pardah), and the various levels of participation. Since most of the participants are disciples drawn to Abba through the healing practice of his wife, the negotiation of gender roles and authority is of special interest. Finally, the performance of song and physical movements of wajd contrasts starkly with the more well-known Mevlevi ("whirling dervishes") Sufi dance in which participants twirl by themselves. Here the man in trance embraces another disciple or the shaykh as he twirls, suggesting a different spiritual goal from annihilation of self (fanâ) in God; namely, relationship both with God and one's fellow human being, a principle well articulated in Abba's teachings.
"Zenab, I am Coming!" The Transformative Power of Nuwâh
Andreas D'Souza, Henry Martyn Institute of Islamic Studies, Hyderabad
The plaintive sound of nuwâhs (lamentation songs) fill the air as you approach Purani Haveli in the old city of Hyderabad during the months of Muharram, Safar and the first eight days of Rabîc al-Awwal. Hundreds of young men and women are moved to grief and even self-punishment by the remembrance of the sufferings of the family of the Prophet recounted by a trained nuwâh reciter (nuwahkhân ) usually at a majlis (mourning assembly). Although some discussion of this particular type of dirge exists (Naqvi, 1982, 1995; Pinault, 1992; Sharar, 1994), an in-depth analysis of its role and significance to the Shîcî community is not available.
This paper draws on observation, participation and interviews to convey the deeper meaning these dirges have for believers. A careful analysis of a selected number of nuwâhs both old and new supports the perception that these sorrowful songs help participants to "re-live" the Karbala tragedy, sharing in the agony of the dead and the dying and the grief of those who survived. The emotions evoked through these mournful songs are so powerful that mourners sometimes go into frenzied ecstasy, raining blows upon their chests or even cutting themselves with flails, blades and swords. Moving beyond the physical manifestation, the paper investigates the spiritual transformation that takes place for believers, and concludes that nuwâhs fashion the very conduct and behavior of Shîcî men and women not only during the weeks of mourning but throughout their entire lives.
In the Presence of the Martyrs: c Alams
in Popular Shî c î Piety
Diane D'Souza, Henry Martyn Institute of Islamic Studies, Hyderabad
The existing literature on Shîcî Muharram observances is limited (Ali, 1832; Ayoub, 1978; Chelkowski, 1979, Hasnain and Husain, 1988; Hegland, 1983; Hussain, 1975; Momen, 1985; Naqvi, 1982, 1995; Pinault, 1992); even more so when it comes to the role played by the c alam (crest or battle standard) in the majlis (mourning assembly). An c alam represents a key figure in early Shîcî history, usually one of the martyrs of Karbala, but also other members of the family of the Prophet or one of the twelve imams (spiritual leaders). This paper describes c alam used in homes and public ashurkhanas (a shrine in which c alams are housed) in the South Indian city of Hyderabad, and examines their place in the annual rituals of mourning and remembrance, particularly the majlis . My focus is primarily on the activities and beliefs of Shî cî women as they express their devotion to the family of the Prophet through veneration of the c alams. Although there exists some tension in the community lest these sacred objects be deified, there is a sense in which they become transformed for the believer into the personalities they represent. The c alam thus becomes not only a powerful symbol for the community, but an empowering presence among the believers.